Dr.Amitendra Singh
Asst.Professor ,
Economics
Uttarakhand Open University,
Haldwani,Nainital. Pin
code- 262139
India is a
vast country occupying 2.4% of the world surface area of 135.79 million sq
km.but supporting and sustaining 16.7% of the world population .There has been
a constant increase in India’s population which reached 1028 million at the
dawn of the 21st century from 238.4 million at the turn of the 20th
century. India is also a predominantly rural country .As per the census (2001)
which was undertaken during Feb 19 to 28, 2001 with a provisional round from
March 1 to 5, 2001, share of India’s rural population stands to 72.2 per cent
out of 1028 million .In order to utilize the full potential of any country,
proper engagement of its people is a precondition. However owing to several
factors like male dominance,purdah system, weak infrastructure, customs and
traditions, religions instructions etc.,energies and potential of a vast chunk
of population i.e. women has remained unutilized and underutilized.
To accelerate the process of
development a number of measures were undertaken in post-independent India. In
fact, poverty and employment were the major problems which attracted the
attention of policy makers and administrators as well.However, divergent in
opinion regarding adopting the model of development, rulers were unanimous in
their view that country can not march ahead on the road of development and
progress without taking due care of the rural masses.
Rural
Development
The term rural
development consists of two words-rural and development. The word rural refers
to the countryside or in the countryside as also the people who live in remote
or rural areas. The word development means the change, growth or improvement
over a period of time (Macmillan; 2002:379).Thus taken two words together rural
development in the countryside (rural area of a country).To be precise living
in the rural areas in a country.
Rural development which simply
connotes the development of rural base that is agriculture, in course of time
assumed a newer meaning and has been approached from different angles. It has
been defined by authors, as “a strategy designed to improve the economic and
social life of a specific group of people-the rural poor. It involves extending
the benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in
the rural areas. The group includes small - scale farmers, tenants and
landless” (World Bank, 1975) ; “strategies, policies and programmes for the
development of rural areas and the promotion of activities carried out in such
areas – agriculture, fishery, rural crafts and industries, the building of a
social and economic infrastructure with the ultimate aim of achieving a fuller
utDesmond,1973:108) ; “improving the living standard of the masses of the low
–income population residing in rural areas and making the process of their
development self-sustainable”(Lele,1975:20); “rural development comprises :
(i)improvement in the level of living including the improvement in the
employment ,education, health and nutrition, housing and variety of social
services;(ii) reducing inequality in the distribution of rural income and urban
imbalances in incomes and economic opportunities;(iii)helping the capacity of
the rural sector to sustain and accelerate the pace of these improvement of
living standards of the poor through opportunities for the better utilization
of their physical and human resources; the mobilization of capital and use of
technology and involvement of poor is necessary”(Parthsarthy,1981:25) “rural
development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as greater
social transformation. In order to provide the rural people with better
prospects for economic development increased participation of people in the
rural development programmes, decentralization of planning, better enforcement
of land reforms and greater access to credit are envisaged”(GOI,2010:1).
Salient
Features of Rural Development
A cursory
look at the above definition brings out the following salient features of rural
development:
(1) It
is a ongoing (continuous) process.
(2) The weaker and vulnerable section of the
society, poor and marginalized
in particular, require special attention in rural development.
(3)Maximum utilization
of available human and physical resources in the rural areas is insured/made
possible.
(4)Rural
development aims at improving the standard of living of rural people by raising
their level of income.
(5)It is also
a strategy that assures improvement in economic and social life of rural poor.
(6) It aims
at elimination of inequality in income distribution by balancing the income
flow.
(7) It
explores for more employment and economic opportunities for people of rural
areas.
(8) It concentrates on all round balanced
development of rural population.
(9) It
presupposes an active and enlightened participation of people in development
programmes.
(10)It
provides for a machinery to oversee and facilities development work at
different levels.
(11)Both Government
organizations (GOs) and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) are supposed to be
actively involved in the rural development process.
(12) Rural
Development not only develops proper ability and capacity among the poor by
providing financial and non-financial assistance along with the guidance to
develop themselves but also prepares rural masses to sustain development
programmes by developing required skills in them on long term basis Governments
(Central and States) give due reflection to rural development in their policy
papers and fix targets to achieve in the successive Five Year Plans.
Objectives of
Rural Development
Any
scheme/programme sets a number of objectives that it cherishes to achieve in a
time bound manner. Rural development basically aims at:
(1)
To get rid of unemployment and under-employment.
(2)
To raise the standard of living of people.
(3)
To ensure sanitation and hygienic living condition.
(4)
Food for all (read not only sufficient but also
nutritious).
(5)
A suitable house to live in.
(6)
Availability of neat and clean drinking water to all.
(7)
Adequate and qualitative educational facilities.
(8)
Adequate, easily accessible and affordable medical
facilities.
(9)
Adequate opportunities to the people to engage
themselves in socio-cultures activities.
(10)
Well connectivity by laying down all weather approach
roads.
All
human beings irrespective of their place of origin-rural or urban have common
basic needs as best depicted by Maslow’s (1952) postulate of hierarchy of basic
needs, namely, physically, security, status ,autonomy and self-actualization
needs (to which ecology needs may also be added and placed between autonomy and
self actualization)(Table-1). Food, water and energy constitute the first level
of physical needs. Food can be further sub-divided into its components like
protein, vitamins. Quality too needs to be specified.
These
needs need to be satisfied by each individual if the dream of a happy and healthy
society is to be realized .Moreover; one has to find out a suitable job which
is feasible only when there is availability of job opportunities created under
appropriate government scheme(s).
After Independence, a number of measures were
undertaken to accelerate the pace of development by introducing and
implementing a number of rural development programmes aiming at creation of
better infrastructure in rural areas in order to utilize the potentials and
energies of people –men and women as also available rural resources by
provisioning for them employment opportunities through Five Year Plans .mention
of these schemes as enlisted by Chaudhary(2009:17-18) is as under:
1.
National Extension Service and Community Development
Programme,1952.
2.
Intensive Agriculture District Programme,1960.
3.
Tribal Areas Development Programme,1965.
4.
Intensive Agriculture Area Programme,1964.
5.
Intensive Area Development Programme,1965.
6.
Small Farmers Development Agency,1969.
7.
Marginal Farmers’ and Agriculture Labourers’
Development Agency,1969.
8.
Rural Works Programme,1970.
9.
Drought Prone Area Programme,1974.
10.
Minimum Needs Based Programme,1974.
11.
20-Point Programme,1975.
12.
Food for Work Programme,1977.
13.
Antyodaya ,1977.
14.
Desert Area Development Programme,1979.
15.
Command Area Development Programme,1979.
16.
Integrated Rural Development Programme(IRDP),1978.
17.
National Rural Employment Programme(NREP),1980.
18.
Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment Programme
(TRYSEM),1980.
19.
Bio-gas Programme,1980.
20.
Self-Employment to Education Unemployed Youth
Programme(SEEUY),1981.
21.
Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme(RLEGP),1980.
22.
Jawahar Rojgar Yojana(JRY),1989.
23.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme,1990.
24.
Prime Minister’s Rojgar Yojana(PMRY),1993.
25.
Employment Assurance Scheme(EAS),1993.
26.
Rural Women Savings Programme,1993.
27.
Rural Employment Programme,1993.
28.
Literate Unemployed Loan Programme,1993.
29.
The Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY),1999.
30.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana(SGRY),2001.
31.
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana(PMGY),2000-1.
32.
Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana(PMGSY),2000.
33.
Antyodaya Anna Yojana,2001.
34.
Annapurna,2000.
35.
Jai Prakash Rozgar Guarantee Yojana(JPRGY)2003.
36.
Valimiki Ambedakar Awas Yojana(VAMBAY),2001.
37.
National Employment Guarantee Act,2005.
38.
Bharat Nirman ,2005-06.
39.
National Rural Health Mission,2005.
40.
Jawahar Lal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission,2005-06.
41.
Aam Admi Bima Yojana,2007.
42.
Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana,2007.
43.
National Old Age Pension Scheme,2007-08.
Indispensability
of Rural Development
While
dealing with the issues, like one as here, one is often confronted as why there
is a divide like urban and rural and the
answer is readily available why not rural development .Over emphasis on
urban/city development has resulted in neglect of rural areas and its people.
To cherish the goal of “Sarve
bhavantu sukhinah,sarve santu niramayah,sarve bhadrani pashyantu,ma kashid dukh
bhag bhavet”,it is necessary to develop the rural areas and its people by
providing adequate infrastructural base because “India lives in its villages
.It is there that our producers live, voters live, the poor and illiterate live
.It is villages that hold the key to the country’s problems .So vision of
future India can be greater than to rebuild its half a million villages .The
irony is that in terms of a teaming million inhabiting these villages our
development ,our democracy ,and our education have all become irrelevant . But
ones we decide to approach then in the right spirit they are bound to respond,
and rise to end their suffering .It may be that in the first phase selected
homogeneous SC/ST and other backward villages may have to be taken up. In case
whole villages do not come forward in the beginning, then mutual-aid teams may
have to be formed” (Gandhi,1931).It is in the fitness of the things that rural
development, without any future delay, is given due attention .The need for
rural development also stems from the fact that our cities are becoming unable to cater the load of condition influx
of people from rural areas in search of joys, education and medical care etc.
To quote, “As matters stand, in our crowded cities, there is not enough space
to provide basic amenities such as water, electricity ,shelter and a healthy
environment. Their congestion is such that it is physical impossible for the
most cities to offer these amenities. In rural areas, there are no such
physical constraints (as there is in cities) but absence of investment prevents
people to enjoy basic amenities there too. So, the problem in cities is
physical and insurmountable; in villages, the impedance is economical but
curable-provided sufficient investment is diverted to rural areas
(Inderesan,2004:581)”.
The need of rural development is
also felt because the rural development population has to be absorbed in rural
areas by providing jobs there. As mention below, non agriculture employment
opportunities are to be increased.
“The planning commission has
targeted eight per cent growth rate, but agriculture (the mainstay of rural
areas) can not grow much faster than two per cent. So, either rural area
recedes six per cent a year relative to cities, or there is six per cent rural
–urban migration or rural areas are empowered to grow at eight per cent with
non-agricultural development making rural-urban migration unnecessary. The last
option is best and feasible. Then, the objective should be to enrich rural
areas by employing around 80 per cent of 1.3 to 1.5 billion rural residents
(out of ultimate population of 1.7-1.8 billion) in non-agriculture
occupation”(Iniresan,2004:580).
Women
Employment
Women,
who from approximately half of the country’s population (48.3% as per latest
census), have from centuries been confined into the four walls of the house.
They have not been treated as equal partners in the development process. Rather
they have been discriminated in all walks of life may it be inside or out side
the home. They not been engaged in economically gainful employment, and even if
engaged, their wages have not been at par with their male counterparts. The
rigorous work performed by women in the home has nowhere been counted, they
have not been considered as partners in the income of the family members who
have actually been working and earning because of their dedicated and hard
working wife at home taking care of the children, parents, other family members
and attending all the house chores, entertaining and obeying their husband
after day long fatigue, last to sleep and first to awake among all members of
the house.
On the basis of a survey – Time Use
Survey conducted from July1998 to June 1999 over six selected states, it has
aptly been concluded by CSO (Central Statistical Organization),” women’s work
is underestimated. A lot of work they do is unremunerated. The System of
National Accounts(SNA) includes only productive work which has marked value and
is included in exchange for value. A great deal of work women do for the
household which is in the nature of care of the household is not included in
the System of National Accounts. Some parts of the work women do for value
addition in the household also do not get paid as it is merged in the household
economic activities. Consequently, women become invisible in these activities.
The Time Use Survey measures the time devoted for SNA activities and extended
SNA activities and evaluates the contribution of men and women to the
household. “The full visibility of the type, extent and distribution of this
unremunerated work will also contribute to a better sharing of
responsibilities………Out of 168 hours in a week ,on the average ,males spent
about 41.96 hours in ‘System of National
Accounts’(NSA) activities as compared to only about 18.72 hours by females.
While females spent 34.63 hours on extended SNA activities, males spent only
3.65 hours. Taking SNA and extended SNA activities together, males spent 45.61
hours against 53.35 hours spent by females; rural males spent only 46.05 hours
as compared to 56.48 hours spent by rural females on SNA activities. In the
case of urban males, this figures works out to 44.50 hours as compared to 45.60
hours spent by urban females. Females, thus, work for longer hours than males.
In other words, women’s contribution worked out to 55% of the total work done
as compared to 45% by men. Therefore, if extended SNA activities are included
in the economic activities, the contributation of women will be higher as
compared to men. Women spent another 25.56 hours per week on cooking, cleaning
and child care. Men spent only 0.32 hours per week on child care. Including
household work, women work 82.04 hours out of 168 hours in a week …. ‘’in India
no payment is made for a number of economic activities”. Such activities are
performed either by family labour or through exchange labour. For the state
combined payment was not made for about 38% of the time spent in SNA activities
.The Amount of unpaid activities was
more (51%) for females as compared to only 33% for males. The predominance of
females in unpaid activities was visible in all the states.” (Gopalan,
2004:433).
Based on NSSO data, employment
on a current daily status (CDS) basis during 1999-2000 to 2004-05 had
accelerate significantly as compared to the growth witnessed during 1993-94 to
1999-2000.During 1999-2000 to 2004-05, about 47 million work opportunities were
created compared to only 24 million in the period between 1993-94 and
1999-2000. Employment growth accelerate from 1.25 per cent annum to 2.62 per
cent than the work force, unemployment rate also rose. The incidence of
unemployment on CDS basis increased from 7.31 per cent in 1999- 2000 to 8.28
per cent in 2004-05 (Economic Survey, 2009-10:275).
Women as in other spheres of life have
lagged behind men the employment area too. As per Census of India (2001) 25.60
per cent of female population has been registered as workers numbering 127.22
million in absolute terms out of a total female population of 496 million. The
majority of women workers are employed in the rural areas. Amongst rural women
workers,87 per cent are employed in agriculture as laborers and cultivators
(India,2007:613).
The International Labour Organization says
that women constitute 30% of Labour force, perform 60% of all working hours,
and receive 10% of world’s income, and own less than 1% of the world’s property
(Sengupta, 2010:1).
According to Das (2008:184), “women
constitute half of the world’s population ,accomplish about 2/3 of its working
hours, receive 1/10th of the world’s income but they are considered
a weaker group in economic development. In the rural areas, women are not
employed in any remunerative work for 247 days in a year for which they are in
need of gainful employment……women have about 7 hours of free time per day to
work besides home based activities.”
The Tenth Five Plan sketches out the
scenario of women employment as,” The low female work participation rate of
25.7 per cent in 2001;their very low representation of 17.2 per cent in
organized sector in 1999; 14.5 per cent in public sector in 1999;14.6 per cent
in Government in 1997;the present high rate of 14 per cent of women struggling
in the Informal/Unorganized Sector, speaks volumes about the most subtle way of
discriminating women and their inaccessibility to employment”(GOI,2002:251).
Pointing out the prevailing disparity in
participation of men and women in work and employment, it has rightly been
observed, “Entrenched patriarchal norms and customs mean that women’s work goes
unnoticed and is unpaid for. The double burden of work on her (unrecognized
household work and low pay in recognized work) coupled with social norms that
prevent her from getting the requisite education and technical skills results
in a low female work participation rate in India was 28% (2004) as compared to
other developing nation like Sri Lanka (30%),Bangladesh(37%),and South Africa
(38%). As per NSSO, however ,(Table 2) work participation rate for female in
rural areas has increased from 28.7% in 2000-01 to 16.6% in 2004-05.The work
participation rate remains lower for women workers reveals that 32.9% are
cultivators,38.9% agricultural labours (as against 20.9% men) and 6.5% workers
in the households industry. Much of the increase in employment among women has
been in the form of self-employment; 48% of urban and 64% of rural women
workers describe themselves as ‘self-employed’ (GOI, 2008 :188).
India was declared an independent State
on 15th August, 1947 and adopted her own Constitution on 26th
January 1950.Indian Constitution, the largest one in the world, incorporates
provisions for all-round development and empowerment of its citizens. The
principle of gender equality is enshrined in the preamble of the Constitution
which is said to be her soul. The Fundamental Rights, The Directive Principles
of State Policy and The Fundamental Duties enjoin on the Indian citizens-males
as well as females to live an enriched and fuller life. Article 14 confers equal
rights and opportunities on men and women in the political, economic and social
spheres; Article 15 prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the ground
of sex, religion, race, caste etc. and Article 15(3) empowers the State to make
affirmative discrimination in favours of women.Similarly, Article 16 provides
for equality of opportunities in the matter of public appointments for all
citizens. It further expects the state to direct its policy in such a way, “
that the citizen, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of
livelihood(Article 39-a); that there is equal pay for equal work for both men
and women (Article 39-d); that the health and strength of workers, men and
women and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not
forced by economic necessity to inter avocations unsuited to their age of
strength (Article 39-e). Article 42 directs the State to make provisions for
ensuring just and humane condition of work and maternity relief. Article
51(A)(e) imposes a fundamental duty on every citizen to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women. To make this de-jure equality into a
de-facto one, many policies and programmes were put into action from time to
time, besides enacting/enforcing special legislations, in favour of women.
The Government of India in 1997
appointed a committee under the chairmanship of H.R.Hashim to review and
rationalize various centrally sponsored schemes for poverty alleviation and
employment generation. The recommendation of the Committee led the Government
to club all employment generation programmes into four broad group i.e. programmes for (i)
self-employed, (ii) wage employment,(iii) area development, and (vi) minimum
needs.
Due to paucity of time and space it is
not possible here to dwell upon all the schemes and programmes, however, it
will be worthwhile to give a brief account of the rural employment
schemes/programmes as incorporated in India 2010 which are currently in vogue.
NATIONAL
RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(NREGA)(now known as MNREGA) is the flagship programme of the Government that
directly touches lives of the poor and promotes inclusive growth.The Act aims at enhancing livelihood security of households in rural
areas of the country by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wages
employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled
manual work. The Act came into force on February 2,2006 and was implemented in
a phased manner. In phase one it was introduced in 200 of the most backward
districts of the country. It was implemented in an additional 130 districts in
phase two 2007-2008. As per the initial target; NREGA was to be expanded countrywide
in five years. However, in order to bring the whole nation under its safety net
and keeping in view the demand, the Scheme was extended to the remaining 274
rural districts of India from April 1, 2008 in phase III. NREGA is the first
ever law internationally, that guarantees wages employment at an unprecedented
scale. The primary objective of the Act is augmenting wage employment. Its
auxiliary objective is strengthening natural resource management through works
that address causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil
erosion and so encourage sustainable development. The process outcome includes
strengthening grassroots processes of democracy and infusing transparency and
accountability in governance.
With its rights- based framework and
demand driven approach, NREGA marks a paradigm shift from the previous wage
programmes. The Act is also a significant vehicle for strengthening
decentralization and deepening processes of democracy by giving a pivotal role
to the Panchayati Raj Institutions in planning, monitoring and implementation.
Unique features of the ACT include, time bound employment guarantee and wage
payment within 15 days, incentive-disincentive structure to the State
Government for providing employment as 90 per cent of the cost for employment
provided is borne by the Central or payment of unemployment allowance at their
own cost and emphasis on labour intensive works prohibiting the use of
contractors and machinery. The Act also mandates 33 per cent participation
for women. Over the last two years, implementation trends vindicate the
basic objective of the Act.
Increasing Employment Opportunities: In
2007-08, 3.39 crore household were provided employment and 143.5 crore
persondays were generated in 330 districts. In 2008-2009, up to July, 253 crore
households have been provided employment and 85.29 crore person days have been
generated.
Enhancing Wage Earning and Impact on
Minimum Wage: The enhance wages earnings have lead to strengthening of the
livelihood resources base of the rural poor in India; in
2007-2008, more than 68% of funds utilized were in the form of wages paid to
the laborers. In 2008-2009, 73% of the funds have been utilized in the form of
wages.
Increasing Outreach to the poor: Self
targeting in nature, the Programme has high works participation of marginalized
groups like SC/ST (57%), women (43%) in 2007-2008, in 2008-2009, up to July,
the participation is SC/ST(54%) and women (49%).
Strengthening Natural Resource Base of Rural
India: In 2007-2008, 17.88 lakh works have been undertaken, of which 49% were
related to water conservation. In 2008-2009, up to July, 16.88 lakh works have
been undertaken, of which 49% are related to water conservation.
Financial Inclusion of the poor: The
Central Government has been encouraging the state governments to make wage
payment through bank and post office accounts of wage seekers. Thus far, 2.9
crore (up to July’08) NREGA bank and post office accounts have been opened to
disburse wages. The Ministry is also encouraging the NREGA workers to obtain
insurance under Jan Shri Bima Yojana .Initial evidence through independence
studies indicates enhancement of agricultural productivity (through water
harvesting, check dams, ground water recharging, improve moisture content,
check in soil erosion and micro-irrigation), stemming of distress migration,
increased access to markets and services through rural connectivity works
,supplementing household incomes, Increase in women workforce participation
ratios and the regeneration of natural resources. The vision of the Ministry is
enabling NREGA become a transformative vehicle of empowering local communities
to enhance their livelihood security. The Ministry has taken several steps to
ensure the Scheme is implemented effectively like encouraging decentralized
participatory management, improving delivery systems and public accountability.
The Rozgar Jagrookta Puruskar award has been introduced to recognized
outstanding contributions by civil society Organizations at State, District,
Block and Gram Panchayat level to generate awareness about provisions and
entitlements and ensuring compliance with implementing processes.
Building Capacity to implement a demand
driven scheme: (a) To strengthen the capacity and give priority to the
competencies required for effective planning, work execution, public disclosure
and social audits the Ministry has been conducting training for NREGA
functionaries, Thus far,6.2 lakh PRI functionaries and 4.82 lakh vigilance and
monitoring committees have been trained (upto July’08).The Central Government
is also providing technical support in key areas of communication, training,
work planning, IT, social audits’ and fund management at all level of
implementation to the state government.
Using IT for reaching out and
inclusion: Web enabled Management Information System (MIS) is one of the
largest data base rural\households through their engagement in NREGA.MIS places
all critical parameters such as shelf of projects, sanctioned works, wages
payments, number of days of employment provided and works under execution on line for easy public
access. The data engineered software has been designed for cross verification
of records and generation of alerts to support proactive response by
management.
Evolving processes for transparency
and public accountability:
Monitoring
and Evaluation: The Ministry has set up a comprehensive monitoring system.
This year, 260 National Level Monitors
and Area Officers have undertaken field visits to each of the 330 Phase II
districts at least once.
For effective monitoring of the
project 100% verification of the works at the Block level, 10% at the District
level and 2% at the State level inspection need to be ensured.
Road Map for Further Strengthening of
NREGA
Setting
up of the Task force on convergence: In order to optimize the multiplier
effects of
NREGA, the Ministry has set up a Task
Force to look at possibility of convergence of programmes like National
Horticulture Mission, Rastriya Krishi Vikash Yojana, Bharat Nirman, and
Watershed Development with NREGA. These convergence efforts will add value to
NREGA, works and aid in creating durable efforts and also enable planned and
coordinator public investment in rural areas.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana
The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana
(SGRY) was launched on 25 September, 2001 by merging the on-going schemes of
EAS and the JGSY with the objective of providing additional wage employment and
food security, alongside creation of durable community assets in rural areas.
The programme is self-targeting in nature with provisions for special emphasis
on women, scheduled castes, schedule tribes and parents of children withdrawn
from hazardous occupation. While preference is given to BPL families for
providing wage employment under SGRY, poor families above the poverty line can
also be offered employment under NREGA. The annual outlay for the programme is
ars.10,00 crore which includes 50 lakh tones on food grains. The cash component
is shared between the Centre and the State/UTs. The payment of food grains is
made directly to FCI at economic cost by the Centre. However ,State Government
are responsible for the cost of transportation of food grains from FCI go down
to work-site/PDS shops and its distribution. Minimum wages are paid to the
workers through a mix of minimum five kg of food grains and at least 25 per
cent of wages in cash. The programme is implemented by all the three tiers
of Panchayati Raj Institutions. Each level of Panchayat is
an independent unit for formulation of Action Plan and executing the scheme
.Resources are distributed among District Panchayats, Intermediate Panchayats
and the Gram Panchayats in the ratio of 20:30:50.The Gram Panchayats can take
up any work with the approval of the
gram sabha as per their felt need and within available funds. Fifty per cent of
the funds earmarked for the gram panchayat are to be utilized for
infrastructure development works in SC/ST localities.22.5 per cent resources
must be spent on individual beneficiary schemes meant for SCs/STs out of the
resource share of district Panchayats and
Intermediate Panchayats. Contractors are not permitted to be engaged for
execution of any of the works and no middlemen/intermediate agencies can be
engaged for executing workers under the scheme. The programme is regularly
monitored.
National
Food for Work Programme
The
National Food For Work Programme was launched in November 2004 in 150 most
backward districts of the country, identified by the Planning Commission in
consultation with the Ministry of Rural Development and the State governments.
The objectives of the programme was to provide additional resources apart from
the resources available under the Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar yojana (SGRY) to 150
most backward districts of the country so that generation of supplementary wage
employment and providing of food –security through creation of need based
economic ,social and community assets of these districts are further
intensified . The scheme was hundred percent centrally sponsored .The programme
has since been sub summed in national rural employment guarantee act which has
come in force in 200 identified districts of the country including 150 NFFWP
districts .The act provides 100 days of work guarantee to every rural house hold
whose members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
SWARNAJAYANTI
GRAM SWAROZGAR YOJANA
The
Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna (SGSY) was launched as an integrated
programme for self employment of the rural poor with effect from 1st
April 1999 . The objective of the scheme is to bring the assisted poor families
above the poverty line by organizing them into self help groups (SHGs) through
the process of social mobilization ,their training and capacity building and
provision of income generating assets through a mix of bank credit and
government subsidy . The scheme emphasizes establishment of activity clusters
through selection of key activities based on aptitude and skill of people
,avilibility of resources and market potentiality .The scheme adopts a process
approach and attempts to build the capacities of the rural poor. It provides
for involvement of NGOs /CBOs/individuals/banks and /Self Helf Promoting
Institutions in nurturing and development of SHGs ,including skill
development.The scheme provides for the cost of social intermediation and skill
development training based on the local requirement.Flixibility has been given
to the DRDAs/States in the utilization of funds for training , section of
Revolving Funds subsidy for economic activity based on the stage of development
of groups.The focus of programme is all establishing a large number of a micro
enterprises in rural areas based on the ability of the poor and potential of
each area, both land-based and otherwise, for sustainable income generation.
Due emphasis is being laid on different components such as capacity building of
the poor,skill development training,credit training ,technology ,transfer,
marketing and infrastructure. The subsidy allowed under the SGSY is 30 per cent
of the total cost, subject to a ceiling of Rs 7,500 (for SC/ST and disabled
persons subsidy limit is 50 % of the project cost subject to a ceiling of Rs
10,000 ).For self helf groups (SHGs,)subsidy would be 50% of the project cost
subject to a ceiling of Rs.1.25 lakh or per capita subsidy of
Rs.10,000,whichever is less.There is no monetary ceiling on subsidy for minor
irrigation projects for SHGs as well as individual Swarojgaris.
The SGSY has a special focus on the
vulnerable groups among the rural poor. SC/STs account for at least
50%,women40% and the persons with physical disability constitute 3 % of the
SWAROJGARIS respectively The SGSY seeks to promotes multiple credits rather
than a one time credit injection .The SHGs may consists of 10-20 members in
case of minor irrigation ,and in case of disabled persons and difficult areas
,i.e .hilly ,desert and sparsely populated areas , this number may be a minimum
of five. Self Helf Groups should also be drawn from the BPL list approved by
the Gram Sabha.The SHGs broadly go through there stages of evolution such as
group formation, capital formation through the revolving fund and skill
development and taking up of economic activity for income generation. Selection
could be made up to 10 key activities per block based on local resources,
occupation skills of the people and availability of market so that the
Swarojgaris can draw suitable income from their investment. Under SGSY each block should concentrate on 4-5
selected key activities and attend to all aspects of these activities in a
cluster approach, so that swarojgaris can draw sustainable income their
investments. The scheme lays special emphasis on development of swarojgaris
through well designed training courses tailored
to the activities selected and the requirement of each swarojgaris. SGSY
is being implemented through the Districts Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs),
with active involvement of panchayati raj institution, banks and NGOs.It is
financed on 75.25 cost-sharing basis between the Centre and State.Since the
inception of the programme 22.52 lakh Self Helf Groups(SHGs)have been formed
covering 66.97 lakh swarojgaris. These include 35.54 lakh members of the SHGs
and 31.43 lakh individual Swarojgaris who have been assisted with a total
investment of Rs. 14403.73 crore. Out of total Swarojgaris assisted, SCs/STs
were 45.54 % and women 47.85 % .During 2006-2007 the Central allocation for the
scheme was Rs.1200crore.
Conclusion
It
is clear from the foregoing discussion that rural development, in its all dimensions,
is sine qua non for a strong and vibrating nation like India which
aspires for becoming a super power in the world. It is also true that no nation
can survive if it ignores its vast human potential in general process and women
in particular because development is above all a human process and not just a
mechanical or technological change. Development dose not mean the construction
of physical structure, installation of huge machines or going for latest
technology. The aim of development
should be to sub-serve the needs of human beings, enrich the quality of life,
both individual and collective in either area – rural or urban. Mere
development of urban area will lead to a cancerous growth in country,
consequences of which will be fatal. Rural development in a predominantly rural
country like ours is of paramount importance. Creation of more and
employment/work opportunities for women in ongoing schemes /projects and
exploring new avenues for their engagement in economically gainful activities
will go a long way in ameliorating the lot of women in rural India. It is also
a demand of the time that majority of women who are working in the unorganized
sector or inside the house are given due space in employment and labour
statistics of the country and their hard work dose not remain unremunerated and
unaccounted. Their contribution to the economy like their male counterparts
should be duly acknowledged. No doubt, formulation and implementation of
various rural development schemes/ programmes have touched many a milestone,
yet a lot remain still to be done. Let us hope for a bright future for rural
India and rural women.
Table-1
Maslow Needs
and Matching Inputs
|
Need
|
Type of
Input
|
Typical
Examples
|
|
Physical
Security
Status
Autonomy
Ecology
Self-actualization
|
Income
Wealth
Perquisite
Freedom to
act
Freedomfrom
squalor
Culture
|
Food, water,
clothing, energy, employment
Health,care,house,vocational
skill, secure employment
Qualityhabitat,careereducation
Authority,connectivity
Wastedisposal,non-congestion
Higher
education,leisure
|
Table-2
Work Participation Rates by
Sex (1972 to 2005)
(in %)
|
Year
|
Rural
Female Male
|
Urban
Female
Male
|
|
1972-73
1987-88
1996-97
2000-01
2004-05
|
31.8
54.5
32.3
53.9
29.1
55.0
28.7
54.4
32.7
54.6
|
13.4
50.1
15.2
50.6
13.1
52.1
14.0
53.1
16.6
54.9
|
Source : NSSO 2004-05
References
1.
Chaudhary, C.M. :Rural Economics, Jaipur:Subline Publication2009
2.
Das,Ashok B.2008:Self-Employment Avenues for Rural Women in Rural Employment,S.B Verma,Y.Upadhyay,and
S.G.P.Singh(eds.),New Delhi:Arun & Sons.
3.
Desai,A.R.1987: Rural Development
and Human Rights in Independence India,Economic and Political
Weekly,Vol.XXII,No.31(August).
4.
Desmond,L.W.1973:Rural Development Problems and Strategies,International
Labour Review.
5.
Gopalan,S.2004 : The profile of the Empowerment Women:Vision 2020,INDIA
VISION 2020,Report of the Committee on India Vision 2020,Planning
Commission,Government of India,New Delhi : Academic Foundation.
6.
Government of India2002 : Women and Children,Tenth Five Year Plan
2002-2007,Volume-II,Planning Commision,Government of India,New Delhi:Oxford
university Press.
7.
Government of India 2008 : Towards Women’s Agency and Child Right,
Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007 2012,Volume-II Social Sector,Planning
Commission,Government of India,New Delhi:Oxford University Press.
8.
Government of India 2010 : Economic Survey,2009-10,Ministry of
Finance,Department of Economics Affairs,Economic Division,Government of
India,New Delhi:Oxford University Press.
9.
Government of India 2010 : Overview of Ministry of Rural
Development,Government of India.http://rural.nic.in/il.htm.
10. Indiresan,P.V.2004 : Rural
Development and Technology management : Mission 2020 ,INDIA VISION 2010,Report
of the Committee on India Vision 2020,Planning Commission, Academic Foundation.
11. Lele, Uma: The Design of Rural
Development: lessons from Africa, John Hopkins, Baltimore and London.
12. Macmillan 2002: Macmillan
English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, Bloomsbury (U.K.): Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
13. Parthsarathy, G. 1981: Integrated Rural Development in Rural
Development in India (Ed.), New Delhi: Heritage Publishers.
14. Todaro, Michael P.1977:
Economics for Development World : An Introduction to Principle, Problems and
Policies for Development ,Longmans publications.
